@c Copyright (C) 2000, 2003 Red Hat, Inc.
@c This file is part of the CGEN manual.
@c For copying conditions, see the file cgen.texi.

@node RTL
@chapter CGEN's Register Transfer Language
@cindex RTL
@cindex Register Transfer Language

CGEN uses a variant of GCC's Register Transfer Language as the basis for
its CPU description language.

@menu
* RTL Introduction::            Introduction to CGEN's RTL
* Trade-offs::                  Various trade-offs in the design
* Rules and notes::             Rules and notes common to all entries
* Definitions::                 Definitions in the description file
* Attributes::                  Random data associated with any entry
* Architecture variants::       Specifying variations of a CPU
* Model variants::              Specifying variations of a CPU's implementation
* Hardware elements::           Elements of a CPU
* Instruction fields::          Fields of an instruction
* Enumerated constants::        Assigning useful names to important numbers
* Instruction operands::
* Derived operands::            Operands for CISC-like architectures
* Instructions::
* Macro-instructions::
* Modes::
* Expressions::
* Macro-expressions::
@end menu

@node RTL Introduction
@section RTL Introduction

The description language, or RTL
@footnote{While RTL stands for Register Transfer Language, it is also used
to denote the CPU description language as a whole.}, needs to support the
definition of all the
architectural and implementation features of a CPU, as well as enough
information for all intended applications.  At present this is just the
opcodes table and an ISA level simulator, but it is not intended that
applications be restricted to these two areas.  The goal is having an
application independent description of the CPU.  In the end that's a lot to
ask for from one language.  Certainly gate level specification of a CPU
is not attempted!

The syntax of the language is inspired by GCC's RTL and by the Scheme
programming language, theoretically taking the best of both.  To what
extent that is true, and to what extent that is sufficient inspiration
is certainly open to discussion.  In actuality, there isn't much difference
here from GCC's RTL that is attributable to being Scheme-ish.  One
important Scheme-derived concept is arbitrary precision of constants.
Sign or zero extension of constants in GCC has always been a source of
problems.  In CGEN'S RTL constants have modes and there are both signed
and unsigned modes.

Here is a graphical layout of the hierarchy of elements of a @file{.cpu}
file.

@example
                           architecture
                          /            \
                    cpu-family1        cpu-family2  ...
                      /     \            /      \
                machine1   machine2  machine3   ...
                 /   \
             model1  model2  ...
@end example

Each of these elements is explained in more detail below.  The
@emph{architecture} is one of @samp{sparc}, @samp{m32r}, etc.  Within
the @samp{sparc} architecture, @emph{cpu-family} might be
@samp{sparc32}, @samp{sparc64}, etc.  Within the @samp{sparc32} CPU
family, the @emph{machine} might be @samp{sparc-v8}, @samp{sparclite},
etc.  Within the @samp{sparc-v8} machine classification, @emph{model}
might be @samp{hypersparc}, @samp{supersparc}, etc.

Instructions form their own hierarchy as each instruction may be supported
by more than one machine.  Also, some architectures can handle more than
one instruction set on one chip (e.g. ARM).

@example
                     isa
                      |
                 instruction
                    /   \	   
             operand1  operand2  ... 
                |         |
         hw1+ifield1   hw2+ifield2  ...
@end example

Each of these elements is explained in more detail below.

@node Trade-offs
@section Trade-offs

While CGEN is written in Scheme, this is not a requirement.  The
description language should be considered absent of any particular
implementation, though certainly some things were done to simplify
reading @file{.cpu} files with Scheme.  Scheme related choices have been
made in areas that have no serious impact on the usefulness of the CPU
description language.  Places where that is not the case need to be
revisited, though there currently are no known ones.

One place where the Scheme implementation influenced the design of
CGEN's RTL is in the handling of modes.  The Scheme implementation was
simplified by treating modes as an explicit argument, rather than as an
optional suffix of the operation name.  For example, compare @code{(add
SI dr sr)} in CGEN versus @code{(add:SI dr sr)} in GCC RTL.  The mode is
treated as optional so a shorthand form of @code{(add dr sr)} works.

@node Rules and notes
@section Rules and notes

A few basic guidelines for all entries:

@itemize @bullet
@item names must be valid Scheme symbols.
@item comments are used, for example, to comment the generated C code
@footnote{It is possible to produce a reference manual from
@file{.cpu} files and such an application wouldn't be a bad idea.}.
@item comments may be any number of lines, though generally succinct comments
are preferable@footnote{It would be reasonable to have a short form
and a long form of comment. Either as two entries are as one entry with
the short form separated from the long form via some delimiter (say the
first newline).}.
@item everything is case sensitive.@footnote{??? This is true in RTL,
though some apps add symbols and convert case that can cause collisions.}
@item while "_" is a valid character to use in symbols, "-" is preferred
@item except for the @samp{comment} and @samp{attrs} fields and unless
otherwise specified all fields must be present.
@end itemize

Symbols and strings

Symbols in CGEN are the same as in Scheme.
Symbols can be used anywhere a string can be used.
The reverse is not true, and in general strings can't be used in place
of symbols.

@node Definitions
@section Definitions
@cindex Definitions

Each entry has the same format: @code{(define-foo arg1 arg2 ...)}, where
@samp{foo} designates the type of entry (e.g. @code{define-insn}).  In
the general case each argument is a name/value pair expressed as
@code{(name value)}.
(*note: Another style in common use is `:name value' and doesn't require
parentheses.  Maybe that would be a better way to go here.  The current
style is easier to construct from macros though.)

While the general case is flexible, it also is excessively verbose in
the normal case.  To reduce this verbosity, a second version of most
define-foo's exists that takes positional arguments.  To further reduce
this verbosity, preprocessor macros can be written to simplify things
further for the normal case.  See sections titled ``Simplification
macros'' below.

@node Attributes
@section Attributes
@cindex Attributes

Attributes are used throughout for specifying various properties.
For portability reasons attributes can only have 32 bit integral values
(signed or unsigned).
@c How about an example?

There are four kinds of attributes: boolean, integer, enumerated, and bitset.
Boolean attributes can be achieved via others, but they occur frequently
enough that they are special cased (and one bit can be used to record them).
Bitset attributes are a useful simplification when one wants to indicate an
object can be in one of many states (e.g. an instruction may be supported by
multiple machines).

String attributes might be a useful addition.
Another useful addition might be functional attributes (the attribute
is computed at run-time - currently all attributes are computed at
compile time).  One way to implement functional attributes would be to
record the attributes as byte-code and lazily evaluate them, caching the
results as appropriate.  The syntax has been carefully done to not
preclude either as an upward compatible extension.

Attributes must be defined before they can be used.
There are several predefined attributes for entry types that need them
(instruction field, hardware, operand, and instruction).  Predefined
attributes are documented in each relevant section below.

In C applications an enum is created that defines all the attributes.
Applications that wish to be architecture independent need the attribute
to have the same value across all architectures.  This is achieved by
giving the attribute the INDEX attribute, which specifies the enum value
must be fixed across all architectures.
@c FIXME: Give an example here.
@c FIXME: Need a better name than `INDEX'.

Convention requires attribute names consist of uppercase letters, numbers,
"-", and "_", and must begin with a letter.
To be consistent with Scheme, "-" is preferred over "_".

@subsection Boolean Attributes
@cindex Attributes, boolean

Boolean attributes are defined with:

@example
(define-attr
  (type boolean)
  (for user-list)
  (name attribute-name)
  (comment "attribute comment")
  (attrs attribute-attributes)
)
@end example

The default value of boolean attributes is always false.  This can be
relaxed, but it's one extra complication that is currently unnecessary.
Boolean attributes are specified in either of two forms: (NAME expr),
and NAME, !NAME.  The first form is the canonical form.  The latter two
are shorthand versions.  `NAME' means "true" and `!NAME' means "false".
@samp{expr} is an expression that evaluates to 0 for false and non-zero
for true @footnote{The details of @code{expr} is still undecided.}.

@code{user-list} is a space separated list of entry types that will use
the attribute.  Possible values are: @samp{attr}, @samp{enum},
@samp{cpu}, @samp{mach}, @samp{model}, @samp{ifield}, @samp{hardware},
@samp{operand}, @samp{insn} and @samp{macro-insn}.  If omitted all are
considered users of the attribute.

@subsection Integer Attributes
@cindex Attributes, integer

Integer attributes are defined with:

@example
(define-attr
  (type integer)
  (for user-list)
  (name attribute-name)
  (comment "attribute comment")
  (attrs attribute-attributes)
  (default expr)
)
@end example

If omitted, the default is 0.

(*note: The details of `expr' is still undecided.  For now it must be
an integer.)

Integer attributes are specified with (NAME expr).

@subsection Enumerated Attributes
@cindex Attributes, enumerated

Enumerated attributes are the same as integer attributes except the
range of possible values is restricted and each value has a name.
Enumerated attributes are defined with

@example
(define-attr
  (type enum)
  (for user-list)
  (name attribute-name)
  (comment "attribute comment")
  (attrs attribute-attributes)
  (values enum-value1 enum-value2 ...)
  (default expr)
)
@end example

If omitted, the default is the first specified value.

(*note: The details of `expr' is still undecided.  For now it must be the
name of one of the specified values.)

Enum attributes are specified with (NAME expr).

@subsection Bitset Attributes
@cindex Attributes, bitset

Bitset attributes are for situations where you want to indicate something
is a subset of a small set of possibilities.  The MACH attribute uses this
for example to allow specifying which of the various machines support a
particular insn.
(*note: At present the maximum number of possibilities is 32.
This is an implementation restriction which can be relaxed, but there's
currently no rush.)

Bitset attributes are defined with:

@example
(define-attr
  (type bitset)
  (for user-list)
  (name attribute-name)
  (comment "attribute comment")
  (attrs attribute-attributes)
  (values enum-value1 enum-value2 ...)
  (default default-name)
)
@end example

@samp{default-name} must be the name of one of the specified values.  If
omitted, it is the first value.

Bitset attributes are specified with @code{(NAME val1,val2,...)}.  There
must be no spaces in ``@code{val1,val2,...}'' and each value must be a
valid Scheme symbol.

(*note: it's not clear whether allowing arbitrary expressions will be
useful here, but doing so is not precluded.  For now each value must be
the name of one of the specified values.)

@node Architecture variants
@section Architecture Variants
@cindex Architecture variants

The base architecture and its variants are described in four parts:
@code{define-arch}, @code{define-isa}, @code{define-cpu}, and
@code{define-mach}.

@menu
* define-arch::
* define-isa::
* define-cpu::
* define-mach::
@end menu

@node define-arch
@subsection define-arch
@cindex define-arch

@code{define-arch} describes the overall architecture, and must be
present.

The syntax of @code{define-arch} is:

@example
(define-arch
  (name architecture-name) ; e.g. m32r
  (comment "description")  ; e.g. "Mitsubishi M32R"
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (default-alignment aligned|unaligned|forced)
  (insn-lsb0? #f|#t)
  (machs mach-name-list)
  (isas isa-name-list)
)
@end example

@subsubsection default-alignment

Specify the default alignment to use when fetching data (and
instructions) from memory.  At present this can't be overridden, but
support can be added if necessary.  The default is @code{aligned}.

@subsubsection insn-lsb0?
@cindex insn-lsb0?

Specifies whether the most significant or least significant bit in a
word is bit number 0.  Generally this should conform to the convention
in the architecture manual.  This is independent of endianness and is an
architecture wide specification.  There is no support for using
different bit numbering conventions within an architecture.
@c Not that such support can't be added of course.

Instruction fields are always numbered beginning with the most
significant bit.  That is, the `start' of a field is always its most
significant bit.  For example, a 4 bit field in the uppermost bits of a
32 bit instruction would have a start/length of (31 4) when insn-lsb0? =
@code{#t}, and (0 4) when insn-lsb0? = @code{#f}.

@subsubsection mach-name-list

The list of names of machines in the architecture.
There should be one entry for each @code{define-mach}.

@subsubsection isa-name-list

The list of names of instruction sets in the architecture.
There must be one for each @code{define-isa}.
An example of an architecture with more than one is the ARM which
has a 32 bit instruction set and a 16 bit "Thumb" instruction set
(the sizes here refer to instruction size).

@node define-isa
@subsection define-isa
@cindex define-isa

@code{define-isa} describes aspects of the instruction set.
A minimum of one ISA must be defined.

The syntax of @code{define-isa} is:

@example
(define-isa
  (name isa-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (default-insn-word-bitsize n)
  (default-insn-bitsize n)
  (base-insn-bitsize n)
  ; (decode-assist (b0 b1 b2 ...)) ; generally unnecessary
  (liw-insns n)
  (parallel-insns n)
  (condition ifield-name expr)
  (setup-semantics expr)
  ; (decode-splits decode-split-list) ; support temporarily disabled
  ; ??? missing here are fetch/execute specs
)
@end example

@subsubsection default-insn-word-bitsize

Specifies the default size of an instruction word in bits.
This affects the numbering of field bits in words beyond the
base instruction.
@xref{Instruction fields}, for more information.

??? There is currently no explicit way to specify a different instruction
word bitsize for particular instructions, it is derived from the instruction
field specs.

@subsubsection default-insn-bitsize

The default size of an instruction in bits. It is generally the size of
the smallest instruction. It is used when parsing instruction fields.
It is also used by the disassembler to know how many bytes to skip for
unrecognized instructions.

@subsubsection base-insn-bitsize

The minimum size of an instruction, in bits, to fetch during execution.
If the architecture has a variable length instruction set, this is the
size of the initial word to fetch.  There is no need to specify the
maximum length of an instruction, that can be computed from the
instructions.  Examples:

@table @asis
@item i386
8
@item M68k
16
@item SPARC
32
@item M32R
32
@end table

The M32R case is interesting because instructions can be 16 or 32 bits.
However instructions on 32 bit boundaries can always be fetched 32 bits
at a time as 16 bit instructions always come in pairs.

@subsubsection decode-assist
@cindex decode-assist

Override CGEN's heuristics about which bits to initially use to decode
instructions in a simulator.  For example on the SPARC these are bits: 
31 30 24 23 22 21 20 19.  The entire decoder can be machine generated, 
so this field is entirely optional.  Since the heuristics are quite
good, you should only use this field if you have evidence that you
can pick a better set, in which case the CGEN developers would like to 
hear from you!

??? It might be useful to provide greater control, but this is sufficient
for now.

It is okay if the opcode bits are over-specified for some instructions.
It is also okay if the opcode bits are under-specified for some instructions.
The machine generated decoder will properly handle both these situations.
Just pick a useful number of bits that distinguishes most instructions.
It is usually best to not pick more than 8 bits to keep the size of the
initial decode table down.

Bit numbering is defined by the @code{insn-lsb0?} field.

@subsubsection liw-insns
@cindex liw-insns

The number of instructions the CPU always fetches at once.  This is
intended for architectures like the M32R, and does not refer to a CPU's
ability to pre-fetch instructions.  The default is 1.

@subsubsection parallel-insns
@cindex parallel-insns

The maximum number of instructions the CPU can execute in parallel.  The
default is 1.

??? Rename this to @code{max-parallel-insns}?

@subsubsection condition

Some architectures like ARM and ARC conditionally execute every instruction
based on the condition specified by one instruction field.
The @code{condition} spec exists to support these architectures.
@code{ifield-name} is the name of the instruction field denoting the
condition and @code{expression} is an RTL expressions that returns
the value of the condition (false=zero, true=non-zero).

@subsubsection setup-semantics

Specify a statement to be performed prior to executing particular instructions.
This is used, for example, on the ARM where the value of the program counter
(general register 15) is a function of the instruction (it is either
pc+8 or pc+12, depending on the instruction).

@subsubsection decode-splits

Specify a list of field names and values to split instructions up by.
This is used, for example, on the ARM where the behavior of some instructions
is quite different when the destination register is r15 (the pc).

The syntax is:

@example
(decode-splits
  (ifield1-name
   constraints
   ((split1-name (value1 value2 ...)) (split2-name ...)))
  (ifield2-name
   ...)
)
@end example

@code{constraints} is work-in-progress and should be @code{()} for now.

One copy of each instruction satisfying @code{constraint} is made
for each specified split.  The semantics of each copy are then
simplified based on the known values of the specified instruction field.

@node define-cpu
@subsection define-cpu
@cindex define-cpu

@code{define-cpu} defines a ``CPU family'' which is a programmer
specified collection of related machines.  What constitutes a family is
work-in-progress however it is intended to distinguish things like
sparc32 vs sparc64.  Machines in a family are sufficiently similar that
the simulator semantic code can handle any differences at run time.  At
least that's the current idea.  A minimum of one CPU family must be
defined.
@footnote{FIXME: Using "cpu" in "cpu-family" here is confusing.
Need a better name.  Maybe just "family"?}

The syntax of @code{define-cpu} is:

@example
(define-cpu
  (name cpu-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (endian big|little|either)
  (insn-endian big|little|either)
  (data-endian big|little|either)
  (float-endian big|little|either)
  (word-bitsize n)
  (insn-chunk-bitsize n)
  (parallel-insns n)
  (file-transform transformation)
)
@end example

@subsubsection endian

The endianness of the architecture is one of three values: @code{big},
@code{little} and @code{either}.

An architecture may have multiple endiannesses, including one for each
of: instructions, integers, and floats (not that that's intended to be the
complete list).  These are specified with @code{insn-endian},
@code{data-endian}, and @code{float-endian} respectively.

Possible values for @code{insn-endian} are: @code{big}, @code{little},
and @code{either}.  If missing, the value is taken from @code{endian}.

Possible values for @code{data-endian} and @code{float-endian} are: @code{big},
@code{big-words}, @code{little}, @code{little-words} and @code{either}.
If @code{big-words} then each word is little-endian.
If @code{little-words} then each word is big-endian.
If missing, the value is taken from @code{endian}.

??? Support for these is work-in-progress.  All forms are recognized
by the @file{.cpu} file reader, but not all are supported internally.

@subsubsection word-bitsize

The number of bits in a word.  In GCC, this is @code{BITS_PER_WORD}.

@subsubsection insn-chunk-bitsize

The number of bits in an instruction word chunk, for purposes of
per-chunk endianness conversion.  The default is zero, meaning
no chunking is required.

@subsubsection parallel-insns

This is the same as the @code{parallel-insns} spec of @code{define-isa}.
It allows a CPU family to override the value.

@subsubsection file-transform

Specify the file name transformation of generated code.

Each generated file has a named related to the ISA or CPU family.
Sometimes generated code needs to know the name of another generated
file (e.g. #include's).
At present @code{file-transform} specifies the suffix.

For example, M32R/x generated files have an `x' suffix, as in @file{cpux.h}
for the @file{cpu.h} header.  This is indicated with
@code{(file-transform "x")}.

??? Ideally generated code wouldn't need to know anything about file names.
This breaks down for #include's.  It can be fixed with symlinks or other
means.

@node define-mach
@subsection define-mach
@cindex define-mach

@code{define-mach} defines a distinct variant of a CPU.  It currently
has a one-to-one correspondence with BFD's "mach number".  A minimum of
one mach must be defined.

The syntax of @code{define-mach} is:

@example
(define-mach
  (name mach-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (cpu cpu-family-name)
  (bfd-name "bfd-name")
  (isas isa-name-list)
)
@end example

@subsubsection bfd-name
@cindex bfd-name

The name of the mach as used by BFD.  If not specified the name of the
mach is used.

@subsubsection isas

List of names of ISA's the machine supports.

@node Model variants
@section Model Variants

For each `machine', as defined here, there is one or more `models'.
There must be at least one model for each machine.
(*note: There could be a default, but requiring one doesn't involve that much
extra typing and forces the programmer to at least think about such things.)

@example
(define-model
  (name model-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (mach machine-name)
  (state (variable-name-1 variable-mode-1) ...)
  (unit name "comment" (attributes)
	issue done state inputs outputs profile)
)
@end example

@subsection mach

The name of the machine the model is an implementation of.

@subsection state

A list of variable-name/mode pairs for recording global function unit
state.  For example on the M32R the value is @code{(state (h-gr UINT))}
and is a bitmask of which register(s) are the targets of loads and thus
subject to load stalls.

@subsection unit

Specifies a function unit.  Any number of function units may be specified.
The @code{u-exec} unit must be specified as it is the default.

The syntax is:

@example
  (unit name "comment" (attributes)
     issue done state inputs outputs profile)
@end example

@samp{issue} is the number of operations that may be in progress.
It originates from GCC function unit specification.  In general the
value should be 1.

@samp{done} is the latency of the unit.  The value is the number of cycles
until the result is ready.

@samp{state} has the same syntax as the global model `state' and is a list of
variable-name/mode pairs.

@samp{inputs} is a list of inputs to the function unit.
Each element is @code{(operand-name mode default-value)}.

@samp{outputs} is a list of outputs of the function unit.
Each element is @code{(operand-name mode default-value)}.

@samp{profile} is an rtl-code sequence that performs function unit
modeling.  At present the only possible value is @code{()} meaning
invoke a user supplied function named @code{<cpu>_model_<mach>_<unit>}.

The current function unit specification is a first pass in order to
achieve something that moderately works for the intended purpose (cycle
counting on the simulator).  Something more elaborate is on the todo list
but there is currently no schedule for it.  The new specification must
try to be application independent.  Some known applications are:
cycle counting in the simulator, code scheduling in a compiler, and code
scheduling in a JIT simulator (where speed of analysis can be more
important than getting an optimum schedule).

The inputs/outputs fields are how elements in the semantic code are mapped
to function units.  Each input and output has a name that corresponds
with the name of the operand in the semantics.  Where there is no
correspondence, a mapping can be made in the unit specification of the
instruction (see the subsection titled ``Timing'').

Another way to achieve the correspondence is to create separate function
units that contain the desired input/output names.  For example on the
M32R the u-exec unit is defined as:

@example
(unit u-exec "Execution Unit" ()
   1 1 ; issue done
   () ; state
   ((sr INT -1) (sr2 INT -1)) ; inputs
   ((dr INT -1)) ; outputs
   () ; profile action (default)
)
@end example

This handles instructions that use sr, sr2 and dr as operands.  A second
function unit called @samp{u-cmp} is defined as:

@example
(unit u-cmp "Compare Unit" ()
   1 1 ; issue done
   () ; state
   ((src1 INT -1) (src2 INT -1)) ; inputs
   () ; outputs
   () ; profile action (default)
)
@end example

This handles instructions that use src1 and src2 as operands.  The
organization of units is arbitrary.  On the M32R, src1/src2 instructions
are typically compare instructions so a separate function unit was
created for them.  Current limitations require that each hardware item
behind the operands must be marked with the attribute @code{PROFILE} and
the hardware item must not be scalar.

@node Hardware elements
@section Hardware Elements

The elements of hardware that make up a CPU are defined with
@code{define-hardware}.  Examples of hardware elements include
registers, condition bits, immediate constants and memory.

Instruction fields that provide numerical values (``immediate
constants'') aren't really elements of the hardware, but it simplifies
things to think of them this way.  Think of them as @emph{constant
generators}@footnote{A term borrowed from the book on the Bulldog
compiler and perhaps other sources.}.

Hardware elements are defined with:

@example
(define-hardware
  (name hardware-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (semantic-name hardware-semantic-name)
  (type type-name type-arg1 type-arg2 ...)
  (indices index-type index-arg1 index-arg2 ...)
  (values values-type values-arg1 values-arg2 ...)
  (handlers handler1 handler2 ...)
  (get (args) (expression))
  (set (args) (expression))
)
@end example

The only required members are @samp{name} and @samp{type}. Convention
requires @samp{hardware-name} begin with @samp{h-}.

@subsection attrs

List of attributes. There are several predefined hardware attributes:

@itemize @minus
@item MACH

A bitset attribute used to specify which machines have this hardware element.
Do not specify the MACH attribute if the value is "all machs".

Usage: @code{(MACH mach1,mach2,...)}
There must be no spaces in ``@code{mach1,mach2,...}''.

@item CACHE-ADDR

A hint to the simulator semantic code generator to tell it it can record the
address of a selected register in an array of registers.  This speeds up
simulation by moving the array computation to extraction time.
This attribute is only useful to register arrays and cannot be specified
with @code{VIRTUAL} (??? revisit).

@item PROFILE

This attribute must be present for hardware elements to which references
are profiled.  Beware, this is work-in-progress.  If you use this
attribute it is likely you have to hack CGEN.  (Please submit patches.)

@item VIRTUAL

The hardware element doesn't require any storage.
This is used when you want a value that is derived from some other value.
If @code{VIRTUAL} is specified, @code{get} and @code{set} specs must be
provided.
@end itemize

@subsection type

This is the type of hardware.  Current values are: @samp{register},
@samp{memory}, and @samp{immediate}.

For registers the syntax is one of:

@example
@code{(register mode [(number)])}
@code{(register (mode bits) [(number)])}
@end example

where @samp{(number)} is the number of registers and is optional. If
omitted, the default is @samp{(1)}.
The second form is useful for describing registers with an odd (as in
unusual) number of bits.
@code{mode} for the second form must be one of @samp{INT} or @samp{UINT}.
Since these two modes don't have an implicit size, they cannot be used for
the first form.

@c ??? Might wish to remove the mode here and just specify number of bits.

For memory the syntax is:

@example
@code{(memory mode (size))}
@end example

where @samp{(size)} is the size of the memory in @samp{mode} units.
In general @samp{mode} should be @code{QI}.

For immediates the syntax is one of

@example
@code{(immediate mode)}
@code{(immediate (mode bits))}
@end example

The second form is for values for which a mode of that size doesn't exist.
@samp{mode} for the second form must be one of @code{INT} or @code{UINT}.
Since these two modes don't have an implicit size, they cannot be used
for the first form.

??? There's no real reason why a mode like SI can't be used
for odd-sized immediate values.  The @samp{bits} field indicates the size
and the @samp{mode} field indicates the mode in which the value will be used,
as well as its signedness.  This would allow removing INT/UINT for this
purpose.  On the other hand, a non-width specific mode allows applications
to choose one (a simulator might prefer to store immediates in an `int'
rather than, say, char if the specified mode was @code{QI}).

@subsection indices

Specify names for individual elements with the @code{indices} spec.
It is only valid for registers with more than one element.

The syntax is:

@example
@code{(indices index-type arg1 arg2 ...)}
@end example

where @samp{index-type} specifies the kind of index and @samp{arg1 arg2 ...}
are arguments to @samp{index-type}.

The are two supported values for @samp{index-type}: @code{keyword}
and @code{extern-keyword}.  The difference is that indices defined with
@code{keyword} are kept internal to the hardware element's definition
and are not usable elsewhere, whereas @code{extern-keyword} specifies
a set of indices defined elsewhere.

@subsubsection keyword

@example
@code{(indices keyword "prefix" ((name1 value1) (name2 value2) ...))}
@end example

@samp{prefix} is the common prefix for each of the index names.
For example, SPARC registers usually begin with @samp{"%"}.

Each @samp{(name value)} pair maps a name with an index number.
An index can be specified multiple times, for example, when a register
has multiple names.

Example from Thumb:

@example
(define-hardware 
  (name h-gr-t)
  (comment "Thumb's general purpose registers")
  (attrs (ISA thumb) VIRTUAL) ; ??? CACHE-ADDR should be doable
  (type register WI (8))
  (indices keyword ""
	   ((r0 0) (r1 1) (r2 2) (r3 3) (r4 4) (r5 5) (r6 6) (r7 7)))
  (get (regno) (reg h-gr regno))
  (set (regno newval) (set (reg h-gr regno) newval))
)
@end example

@subsubsection extern-keyword

@example
@code{(indices extern-keyword keyword-name)}
@end example

Example from M32R:

@example
(define-keyword
  (name gr-names)
  (print-name h-gr)
  (prefix "")
  (values (fp 13) (lr 14) (sp 15)
	  (r0 0) (r1 1) (r2 2) (r3 3) (r4 4) (r5 5) (r6 6) (r7 7)
	  (r8 8) (r9 9) (r10 10) (r11 11) (r12 12) (r13 13) (r14 14) (r15 15))
)

(define-hardware
  (name h-gr)
  (comment "general registers")
  (attrs PROFILE CACHE-ADDR)
  (type register WI (16))
  (indices extern-keyword gr-names)
)
@end example

@subsection values

Specify a list of valid values with the @code{values} spec.
@c Clumsy wording.

The syntax is identical to the syntax for @code{indices}.
It is only valid for immediates.

Example from sparc64:

@example
(define-hardware
  (name h-p)
  (comment "prediction bit")
  (attrs (MACH64))
  (type immediate (UINT 1))
  (values keyword "" (("" 0) (",pf" 0) (",pt" 1)))
)
@end example

@subsection handlers

The @code{handlers} spec is an escape hatch for indicating when a
programmer supplied routine must be called to perform a function.

The syntax is:

@example
@samp{(handlers (handler-name1 "function_name1")
                (handler-name2 "function_name2")
                ...)}
@end example

@samp{handler-name} must be one of @code{parse} or @code{print}.
How @samp{function_name} is used is application specific, but in
general it is the name of a function to call.  The only application
that uses this at present is Opcodes.  See the Opcodes documentation for
a description of each function's expected prototype.

@subsection get

Specify special processing to be performed when a value is read
with the @code{get} spec.

The syntax for scalar registers is:

@example
@samp{(get () (expression))}
@end example

The syntax for vector registers is:

@example
@samp{(get (index) (expression))}
@end example

@code{expression} is an RTL expression that computes the value to return.
The mode of the result must be the mode of the register.

@code{index} is the name of the index as it appears in @code{expression}.

At present, @code{sequence}, @code{parallel}, and @code{case} expressions
are not allowed here.

@subsection set

Specify special processing to be performed when a value is written
with the @code{set} spec.

The syntax for scalar registers is:

@example
@samp{(set (newval) (expression))}
@end example

The syntax for vector registers is:

@example
@samp{(set (index newval) (expression))}
@end example

@code{expression} is an RTL expression that stores @code{newval}
in the register.  This may involve storing values in other registers as well.
@code{expression} must be one of @code{set}, @code{if}, @code{sequence}, or
@code{case}.

@code{index} is the name of the index as it appears in @code{expression}.

@subsection Predefined hardware elements

Several hardware types are predefined:

@table @code
@item h-uint
unsigned integer
@item h-sint
signed integer
@item h-memory
main memory, where ``main'' is loosely defined
@item h-addr
data address (data only)
@item h-iaddr
instruction address (instructions only)
@end table

@subsection Program counter

The program counter must be defined and is not a builtin.
If get/set specs are not required, define it as:

@example
(dnh h-pc "program counter" (PC) (pc) () () ())
@end example

If get/set specs are required, define it as:

@example
(define-hardware
  (name h-pc)
  (comment "<ARCH> program counter")
  (attrs PC)
  (type pc)
  (get () <insert get code here>)
  (set (newval) <insert set code here>)
)
@end example

If the architecture has multiple instruction sets, all must be specified.
If they're not, the default is the first one which is not what you want.
Here's an example from @file{arm.cpu}:

@example
(define-hardware
  (name h-pc)
  (comment "ARM program counter (h-gr reg 15)")
  (attrs PC (ISA arm,thumb))
  (type pc)
  (set (newval)
       (if (reg h-tbit)
	   (set (raw-reg SI h-pc) (and newval -2))
	   (set (raw-reg SI h-pc) (and newval -4))))
)
@end example

@subsection Simplification macros

To simplify @file{.cpu} files, the @code{dnh}
(@code{define-normal-hardware}) macro exists that takes a fixed set of
positional arguments for the typical hardware element.  The syntax of
@code{dnh} is:

@code{(dnh name comment attributes type indices values handlers)}

Example:

@example
(dnh h-gr "general registers"
     () ; attributes
     (register WI (16))
     (keyword "" ((fp 13) (sp 15) (lr 14)
                  (r0 0) (r1 1) (r2 2) (r3 3)
                  (r4 4) (r5 5) (r6 6) (r7 7)
                  (r8 8) (r9 9) (r10 10) (r11 11)
                  (r12 12) (r13 13) (r14 14) (r15 15)))
     () ()
)
@end example

This defines an array of 16 registers of mode @code{WI} ("word int").
The names of the registers are @code{r0...r15}, and registers 13, 14 and 
15 also have the names @code{fp}, @code{lr} and @code{sp} respectively.

Scalar registers with no special requirements occur frequently.
Macro @code{dsh} (@code{define-simple-hardware}) is identical to
@code{dnh} except does not include the @code{indices}, @code{values},
or @code{handlers} specs.

@example
(dsh h-ibit "interrupt enable bit" () (register BI))
@end example

@node Instruction fields
@section Instruction Fields
@cindex Fields, instruction

Instruction fields define the raw bitfields of each instruction.
Minimal semantic meaning is attributed to them.  Support is provided for
mapping to and from the raw bit pattern and the usable contents, and
other simple manipulations.

The syntax for defining instruction fields is:

@example
(define-ifield
  (name field-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (word-offset word-offset-in-bits)
  (word-length word-length-in-bits)
  (start starting-bit-number)
  (length number-of-bits)
  (follows ifield-name)
  (mode mode-name)
  (encode (value pc) (rtx to describe encoding))
  (decode (value pc) (rtx to describe decoding))
)
@end example

(*note: Whether to also provide a way to specify instruction formats is not yet
clear.  Currently they are computed from the instructions, so there's no
current *need* to provided them.  However, providing the ability as an
option may simplify other tools CGEN is used to generate.  This
simplification would come in the form of giving known names to the formats
which CPU reference manuals often do.  Pre-specified instruction formats
may also simplify expression of more complicated instruction sets.
Providing instruction formats may also simplify the support of really
complex ISAs like i386 and m68k).

(*note: Positional specification simplifies instruction description somewhat
in that there is no required order of fields, and a disjunct set of fields can
be referred to as one.  On the other hand it can require knowledge of the length
of the instruction which is inappropriate in cases like the M32R where
the main fields have the same name and "position" regardless of the length
of the instruction.  Moving positional specification into instruction formats,
whether machine generated or programmer specified, may be done.)

Convention requires @samp{field-name} begin with @samp{f-}.

@subsection attrs

There are several predefined instruction field attributes:

@table @code
@item PCREL-ADDR
The field contains a PC relative address.  Various CPUs have various
offsets from the PC from which the address is calculated.  This is
specified in the encode and decode sections.

@item ABS-ADDR
The field contains an absolute address.

@item SIGN-OPT
The field has an optional sign.  It is sign-extended during
extraction. Allowable values are -2^(n-1) to (2^n)-1.

@item RESERVED
The field is marked as ``reserved'' by the architecture.
This is an informational attribute.  Tools may use it
to validate programs, either statically or dynamically.

@item VIRTUAL
The field does not directly contribute to the instruction's value.  This
is used to simplify semantic or assembler descriptions where a fields
value is based on other values.  Multi-ifields are always virtual.
@end table

@subsection word-offset
The offset in bits from the start of the instruction to the word containing
the field.

NOTE: Either both of @samp{word-offset} and @samp{word-length} must be
specified or neither of them must be specified.  The presence of
@samp{word-offset} means the long form of specifying the field's position is
being used.  If absent then the short form is being used and the value for
@samp{word-offset} is encoded in @samp{start}.

@subsection word-length
The length in bits of the word containing the field.

@subsection start
The bit number of the field's most significant bit in the instruction.
Bit numbering is determined by the @code{insn-lsb0?} field of
@code{define-arch}.

NOTE: If using the long form of specifying the field's position
(@samp{word-offset} is present) then this value is the value within
the containing word.  If using the short form then this value includes
the word offset.  See the Porting document for more info
(@pxref{Writing define-ifield}).

@subsection length
The number of bits in the field.  The field must be contiguous.  For
non-contiguous instruction fields use "multi-ifields"
(@pxref{Instruction fields}).

@subsection follows
Optional.  Experimental.
This should not be used for the specification of RISC-like architectures.
It is an experiment in supporting CISC-like architectures.
The argument is the name of the ifield or operand that immediately precedes
this one.  In general the argument is an "anyof" operand.  The @code{follows}
spec allows subsequent ifields to ``float''.

@subsection mode
The mode the value is to be interpreted in.
Usually this is @code{INT} or @code{UINT}.

@c ??? There's no real reason why modes like SI can't be used here.
The @samp{length} field specifies the number of bits in the field,
and the @samp{mode} field indicates the mode in which the value will be used,
as well as its signedness.  This would allow removing INT/UINT for this
purpose.  On the other hand, a non-width specific mode allows applications
to choose one (a simulator might prefer to store immediates in an `int'
rather than, say, char if the specified mode was @code{QI}).

@subsection encode
An expression to apply to convert from usable values to raw field
values.  The syntax is @code{(encode (value pc) expression)} or more
specifically @code{(encode ((<mode1> value) (IAI pc)) <expression>)},
where @code{<mode1>} is the mode of the the ``incoming'' value, and
@code{<expression>} is an rtx to convert @code{value} to something that
can be stored in the field.

Example:

@example
(encode ((SF value) (IAI pc))
	(cond WI
	      ((eq value (const SF 1.0)) (const 0))
	      ((eq value (const SF 0.5)) (const 1))
	      ((eq value (const SF -1.0)) (const 2))
	      ((eq value (const SF 2.0)) (const 3))
	      (else (error "invalid floating point value for field foo"))))
@end example

In this example four floating point immediate values are represented in a
field of two bits.  The above might be expanded to a series of `if' statements
or the generator could determine a `switch' statement is more appropriate.

@subsection decode

An expression to apply to convert from raw field values to usable
values.  The syntax is @code{(decode (value pc) expression)} or more
specifically @code{(decode ((WI value) (IAI pc)) <expression>)}, where
@code{<expression>} is an rtx to convert @code{value} to something
usable.

Example:

@example
(decode ((WI value) (IAI pc))
	(cond SF
	      ((eq value 0) (const SF 1.0))
	      ((eq value 1) (const SF 0.5))
	      ((eq value 2) (const SF -1.0))
	      ((eq value 3) (const SF 2.0))))
@end example

There's no need to provide an error case as presumably @code{value}
would never have an invalid value, though certainly one could provide an
error case if one wanted to.

@subsection Non-contiguous fields
@cindex Fields, non-contiguous

Non-contiguous fields (e.g. sparc64's 16 bit displacement field) are
built on top of support for contiguous fields.  The syntax for defining
such fields is:

@example
(define-multi-ifield
  (name field-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (mode mode-name)
  (subfields field1-name field2-name ...)
  (insert (code to set each subfield))
  (extract (code to set field from subfields))
)
@end example

(*note: insert/extract are analogous to encode/decode so maybe these
fields are misnamed.  The operations are subtly different though.)

Example:

@example
(define-multi-ifield
  (name f-i20)
  (comment "20 bit unsigned")
  (attrs)
  (mode UINT)
  (subfields f-i20-4 f-i20-16)
  (insert (sequence ()
                    (set (ifield f-i20-4)  (srl (ifield f-i20) (const 16)))
                    (set (ifield f-i20-16) (and (ifield f-i20) (const #xffff)))
                    ))
  (extract (sequence ()
                     (set (ifield f-i20) (or (sll (ifield f-i20-4) (const 16))
                                             (ifield f-i20-16)))
                     ))
)
@end example

@subsection subfields
The names of the already defined fields that make up the multi-ifield.

@subsection insert
Code to set the subfields from the multi-ifield. All fields are referred
to with @code{(ifield <name>)}.

@subsection extract
Code to set the multi-ifield from the subfields. All fields are referred
to with @code{(ifield <name>)}.

@subsection Simplification macros
To simplify @file{.cpu} files, the @code{dnf}, @code{df} and @code{dnmf}
macros have been created. Each takes a fixed set of positional arguments
for the typical instruction field.  @code{dnf} is short for
@code{define-normal-field}, @code{df} is short for @code{define-field},
and @code{dnmf} is short for @code{define-normal-multi-ifield}.

The syntax of @code{dnf} is:

@code{(dnf name comment attributes start length)}

Example:

@code{(dnf f-r1 "register r1" () 4 4)}

This defines a field called @samp{f-r1} that is an unsigned field of 4
bits beginning at bit 4.  All fields defined with @code{dnf} are unsigned.

The syntax of @code{df} is:

@code{(df name comment attributes start length mode encode decode)}

Example:

@example
(df f-disp8
    "disp8, slot unknown" (PCREL-ADDR)
    8 8 INT
    ((value pc) (sra WI (sub WI value (and WI pc (const -4))) (const 2)))
    ((value pc) (add WI (sll WI value (const 2)) (and WI pc (const -4)))))
@end example

This defines a field called @samp{f-disp8} that is a signed PC-relative
address beginning at bit 8 of size 8 bits that is left shifted by 2.

The syntax of @code{dnmf} is:

@code{(dnmf name comment attributes mode subfields insert extract)}

@node Enumerated constants
@section Enumerated constants
@cindex Enumerated constants
@cindex Enumerations

Enumerated constants (@emph{enums}) are important enough in instruction
set descriptions that they are given special treatment. Enums are
defined with:

@example
(define-enum
  (name enum-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (prefix prefix)
  (values val1 val2 ...)
)
@end example

Enums in opcode fields are further enhanced by specifying the opcode
field they are used in.  This allows the enum's name to be specified
in an instruction's @code{format} entry.

@example
(define-insn-enum
  (name enum-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs (attribute list))
  (prefix prefix)
  (ifield instruction-field-name)
  (values val1 val2 ...)
)
@end example

(*note: @code{define-insn-enum} isn't implemented yet: use
@code{define-normal-insn-enum})

Example:

@example
(define-insn-enum
  (name insn-op1)
  (comment "op1 field values")
  (prefix OP1_)
  (ifield f-op1)
  (values "0" "1" "2" "3" "4" "5" "6" "7"
          "8" "9" "10" "11" "12" "13" "14" "15")
)
@end example

@subsection prefix
Convention requires each enum value to be prefixed with the same text.
Rather than specifying the prefix in each entry, it is specified once, here.
Convention requires @samp{prefix} not contain any lowercase characters.

@subsection ifield
The name of the instruction field that the enum is intended for.  This
must be a simple ifield, not a multi-ifield.

@subsection values
A list of possible values.  Each element has one of the following forms:

@itemize @bullet
@item @code{name}
@item @code{(name)}
@item @code{(name value)}
@item @code{(name - (attribute-list))}
@item @code{(name value (attribute-list))}
@end itemize

The syntax for numbers is Scheme's, so hex numbers are @code{#xnnnn}.
A value of @code{-} means use the next value (previous value plus 1).

Example:

@example
(values "a" ("b") ("c" #x12)
	("d" - (sanitize foo)) ("e" #x1234 (sanitize bar)))
@end example

@subsection Simplification macros

@code{(define-normal-enum name comment attrs prefix vals)}

@code{(define-normal-insn-enum name comment attrs prefix ifield vals)}

@node Instruction operands
@section Instruction Operands
@cindex Operands, instruction

Instruction operands provide:

@itemize @bullet
@item a layer between the assembler and the raw hardware description
@item the main means of manipulating instruction fields in the semantic code
@c More?
@end itemize

The syntax is:

@example
(define-operand
  (name operand-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (type hardware-element)
  (index instruction-field)
  (asm asm-spec)
)
@end example

@subsection name

This is the name of the operand as a Scheme symbol.
The name choice is fairly important as it is used in instruction
syntax entries, instruction format entries, and semantic expressions.
It can't collide with symbols used in semantic expressions
(e.g. @code{and}, @code{set}, etc).

The convention is that operands have no prefix (whereas ifields begin
with @samp{f-} and hardware elements begin with @samp{h-}).  A prefix
like @samp{o-} would avoid collisions with other semantic elements, but
operands are used often enough that any prefix is a hassle.

@subsection attrs

A list of attributes. In addition to attributes defined for the operand,
an operand inherits the attributes of its instruction field. There are
several predefined operand attributes:

@table @code
@item NEGATIVE
The operand contains negative values (not used yet so definition is
still nebulous.

@item RELAX
This operand contains the changeable field (usually a branch address) of
a relaxable/relaxed instruction.

@item SEM-ONLY
Use the SEM-ONLY attribute for cases where the operand will only be used
in semantic specification, and not assembly code specification.  A
typical example is condition codes.
@end table

To refer to a hardware element in semantic code one must either use an
operand or one of reg/mem/const.  Operands generally exist to map
instruction fields to the selected hardware element and are easier to
use in semantic code than referring to the hardware element directly
(e.g. @code{sr} is easier to type and read than @code{(reg h-gr
<index>)}). Example:

@example
  (dnop condbit "condition bit" (SEM-ONLY) h-cond f-nil)
@end example

@code{f-nil} is the value to use when there is no instruction field

@c There might be some language cleanup to be done here regarding f-nil.
@c It is kind of extraneous.

@subsection type
The hardware element this operand applies to. This must be the name of a
hardware element.

@subsection index
The index of the hardware element. This is used to mate the hardware
element with the instruction field that selects it, and must be the name
of an ifield entry. (*note: The index may be other things besides
ifields in the future.)  It must not be a multi-ifield, currently.

@subsection asm
Sometimes it's necessary to escape to C to parse assembler, or print
a value.  This field is an escape hatch to implement this.
The current syntax is:

@code{(asm asm-spec)}

where @code{asm-spec} is one or more of:

@code{(parse "function_suffix")} -- a call to function
@code{parse_<function_suffix>} is generated.

@code{(print "function_suffix")} -- a call to function
@code{print_<function_suffix>} is generated.

These functions are intended to be provided in a separate @file{.opc}
file.  The prototype of a parse function depends on the hardware type.
See @file{cgen/*.opc} for examples.

@c FIXME: The following needs review.

For integer it is:

@example
static const char *
parse_foo (CGEN_CPU_DESC cd,
	   const char **strp,
	   int opindex,
	   unsigned long *valuep);
@end example

@code{cd} is the result of @code{<arch>_cgen_cpu_open}.
@code{strp} is a pointer to a pointer to the assembler and is updated by
the function.
@c FIXME
@code{opindex} is ???.
@code{valuep} is a pointer to where to record the parsed value.
@c FIXME
If a relocation is needed, it is queued with a call to ???. Queued
relocations are processed after the instruction has been parsed.

The result is an error message or NULL if successful.

The prototype of a print function depends on the hardware type.  See
@file{cgen/*.opc} for examples. For integers it is:

@example
void print_foo (CGEN_CPU_DESC cd,
                PTR dis_info,
                long value,
                unsigned int attrs,
                bfd_vma pc,
                int length);
@end example

@samp{cd} is the result of @code{<arch>_cgen_cpu_open}.
@samp{ptr} is the `info' argument to print_insn_<arch>.
@samp{value} is the value to be printed.
@samp{attrs} is the set of boolean attributes.
@samp{pc} is the PC value of the instruction.
@samp{length} is the length of the instruction.

Actual printing is done by calling @code{((disassemble_info *)
dis_info)->fprintf_func}.

@node Derived operands
@section Derived Operands
@cindex Derived operands
@cindex Operands, instruction
@cindex Operands, derived

Derived operands are an experiment in supporting the addressing modes of
CISC-like architectures.  Addressing modes are difficult to support as
they essentially increase the number of instructions in the architecture
by an order of magnitude.  Defining all the variants requires something
in addition to the RISC-like architecture support.  The theory is that
since CISC-like instructions are basically "normal" instructions with
complex operands the place to add the necessary support is in the
operands.

Two kinds of operands exist to support CISC-like cpus, and they work
together.  "derived-operands" describe one variant of a complex
argument, and "anyof" operands group them together.

The syntax for defining derived operands is:

@example
(define-derived-operand
  (name operand-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (mode mode-name)
  (args arg1-operand-name arg2-operand-name ...)
  (syntax "syntax")
  (base-ifield ifield-name)
  (encoding (+ arg1-operand-name arg2-operand-name ...))
  (ifield-assertion expression)
  (getter expression)
  (setter expression)
)
@end example

@cindex anyof operands
@cindex Operands, anyof

The syntax for defining anyof operands is:

@example
(define-anyof-operand
  (name operand-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (mode mode-name)
  (base-ifield ifield-name)
  (choices derived-operand1-name derived-operand2-name ...)
)
@end example

@subsection mode

The name of the mode of the operand.

@subsection args

List of names of operands the derived operand uses.
The operands must already be defined.
The argument operands can be any kind of operand: normal, derived, anyof.

@subsection syntax

Assembler syntax of the operand.

??? This part needs more work.  Addressing mode specification in assembler
needn't be localized to the vicinity of the operand.

@subsection base-ifield

The name of the instruction field common to all related derived operands.
Here related means "used by the same `anyof' operand".

@subsection encoding

The machine encoding of the operand.

@subsection ifield-assertion

An assertion of what values any instruction fields will or will not have
in the containing instruction.

??? A better name for this might be "constraint".

@subsection getter

RTL expression to get the value of the operand.
All operands refered to must be specified in @code{args}.

@subsection setter

RTL expression to set the value of the operand.
All operands refered to must be specified in @code{args}.
Use @code{newval} to refer to the value to be set.

@subsection choices

For anyof operands, the names of the derived operands.
The operand may be "any of" the specified choices.

@node Instructions
@section Instructions
@cindex Instructions

Each instruction in the instruction set has an entry in the description
file.  For complicated instruction sets this is a lot of typing.  However,
macros can reduce a lot of that typing.  The real question is given the
amount of information that must be expressed, how succinct can one express
it and still be clean and usable?  I'm open to opinions on how to improve
this, but such improvements must take everything CGEN wishes to be into
account.
(*note: Of course no claim is made that the current design is the
be-all and end-all or that there is one be-all and end-all.)

The syntax for defining an instruction is:

@example
(define-insn
  (name insn-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (syntax "assembler syntax")
  (format (+ field-list))
  (semantics (semantic-expression))
  (timing timing-data)
)
@end example

Instructions specific to a particular cpu variant are denoted as such with
the MACH attribute.

Possible additions for the future:

@itemize @bullet
@item a field to describe a final constraint for determining a match
@item choosing the output from a set of choices
@end itemize

@subsection attrs

A list of attributes, for which there are several predefined instruction
attributes:

@table @code
@item MACH
A bitset attribute used to specify which machines have this hardware
element. Do not specify the MACH attribute if the value is for all
machines.

Usage: @code{(MACH mach1,mach2,...)}  

There must be no spaces in ``@code{mach1,mach2,...}''.

@item UNCOND-CTI
The instruction is an unconditional ``control transfer instruction''.

(*note: This attribute is derived from the semantic code. However if the
computed value is wrong (dunno if it ever will be) the value can be
overridden by explicitly mentioning it.)

@item COND-CTI
The instruction is an conditional "control transfer instruction".

(*note: This attribute is derived from the semantic code. However if the
computed value is wrong (dunno if it ever will be) the value can be
overridden by explicitly mentioning it.)

@item SKIP-CTI
The instruction can cause one or more insns to be skipped. This is
derived from the semantic code.

@item DELAY-SLOT
The instruction has one or more delay slots. This is derived from the
semantic code.

@item RELAXABLE
The instruction has one or more identical variants.  The assembler tries
this one first and then the relaxation phases switches to larger ones as
necessary.

@item RELAXED
The instruction is a non-minimal variant of a relaxable instruction.  It
is avoided by the assembler in the first pass.

@item ALIAS
Internal attribute set for macro-instructions that are an alias for one
real insn.

@item NO-DIS
For macro-instructions, don't use during disassembly.
@end table

@subsection syntax

This is a character string consisting of raw characters and operands.
Fields are denoted by @code{$operand} or
@code{$@{operand@}}@footnote{Support for @code{$@{operand@}} is
work-in-progress.}.  If a @samp{$} is required in the syntax, it is
specified with @samp{\$}.  At most one white-space character may be
present and it must be a blank separating the instruction mnemonic from
the operands.  This doesn't restrict the user's assembler, this is
@c Is this reasonable?
just a description file restriction to separate the mnemonic from the
operands@footnote{The restriction can be relaxed by saying the first
blank is the one that separates the mnemonic from its operands.}.
The assembly language accepted by the generated assembler does not
have to take exactly the same form as the syntax described in this
field--additional whitespace may be present in the input file.

Operands can refer to registers, constants, and whatever else is necessary.

Instruction mnemonics can take operands.  For example, on the SPARC a
branch instruction can take @code{,a} as an argument to indicate the
instruction is being annulled (e.g. @code{bge$a $disp22}).

@subsection format

This is a complete list of fields that specify the instruction.  At
present it must be prefaced with @code{+} to allow for future additions.
Reserved bits must also be specified, gaps are not allowed.  
@c Well, actually I think they are and it could certainly be allowed.
@c Question: should they be allowed?
The ordering of the fields is not important.

Format elements can be any of:

@itemize @bullet
@item instruction field specifiers with a value (e.g. @code{(f-r1 14)})
@item an instruction field enum, as in @code{OP1_4}
@item an operand
@end itemize

@subsection semantics
@cindex Semantics

This field provides a mathematical description of what the instruction
does.  Its syntax is GCC RTL-like on purpose since GCC's RTL is well
known by the intended audience.  However, it is not intended that it be
precisely GCC RTL.

Obviously there are some instructions that are difficult if not
impossible to provide a description for (e.g. I/O instructions).  Rather
than create a new semantic function for each quirky operation, escape
hatches to C are provided to handle all such cases.  The @code{c-code},
@code{c-call} and @code{c-raw-call} semantic functions provide an
escape-hatch to invoke C code to perform the
operation. @xref{Expressions}.

@subsection timing
@cindex Timing

A list of entries for each function unit the instruction uses on each machine
that supports the instruction.  The default function unit is the u-exec unit.

The syntax is:

@example
(model-name (unit name (direction unit-var-name1 insn-operand-name1)
                       (direction unit-var-name2 insn-operand-name2)
                       ...
                       (cycles cycle-count))
@end example

direction/unit-var-name/insn-operand-name mappings are optional.
They map unit inputs/outputs to semantic elements.  The
direction specifier can be @code{in} or @code{out} mapping the
name of a unit input or output, respectively, to an insn
operand.

@code{cycles} overrides the @code{done} value (latency) of the function
unit and is optional.

@subsection Simplification macros

To simplify @file{.cpu} files, the @code{dni} macro has been created.
It takes a fixed set of positional arguments for the typical instruction
field.  @code{dni} is short for @code{define-normal-insn}.

The syntax of @code{dni} is:

@code{(dni name comment attrs syntax format semantics timing)}

Example:

@example
(dni addi "add 8 bit signed immediate"
     ()
     "addi $dr,$simm8"
     (+ OP1_4 dr simm8)
     (set dr (add dr simm8))
     ()
)
@end example

@node Macro-instructions
@section Macro-instructions
@cindex Macro-instructions
@cindex Instructions, macro

Macro-instructions are for the assembler side of things and are not used
by the simulator. The syntax for defining a macro-instruction is:

@example
(define-macro-insn
  (name macro-insn-name)
  (comment "description")
  (attrs attribute-list)
  (syntax "assembler syntax")
  (expansions expansion-spec)
)
@end example

@subsection syntax

Syntax of the macro-instruction. This has the same value as the
@code{syntax} field in @code{define-insn}.

@subsection expansions

An expression to emit code for the instruction.  This is intended to be
general in nature, allowing tests to be done at runtime that choose the
form of the expansion.  Currently the only supported form is:

@code{(emit insn arg1 arg2 ...)}

where @code{insn} is the name of an instruction defined with
@code{define-insn} and @emph{argn} is the set of operands to
@code{insn}'s syntax.  Each argument is mapped in order to one operand
in @code{insn}'s syntax and may be any of:

@itemize @bullet
@item operand specified in @code{syntax}
@item @code{(operand value)}
@end itemize

Example:

@example
(dni st-minus "st-" ()
     "st $src1,@-$src2"
     (+ OP1_2 OP2_7 src1 src2)
     (sequence ((WI new-src2))
	       (set new-src2 (sub src2 (const 4)))
	       (set (mem WI new-src2) src1)
	       (set src2 new-src2))
     ()
)
@end example

@example
(dnmi push "push" ()
  "push $src1"
  (emit st-minus src1 (src2 15)) ; "st %0,@-sp"
)
@end example

In this example, the @code{st-minus} instruction is a general
store-and-decrement instruction and @code{push} is a specialized version
of it that uses the stack pointer.

@node Modes
@section Modes
@cindex Modes

Modes provide a simple and succinct way of specifying data types.

(*note: Should more complex types will be needed (e.g. structs? unions?),
these can be handled by extending the definition of a mode to encompass them.)

Modes are similar to their usage in GCC, but there are some differences:

@itemize @bullet
@item modes for boolean values (i.e. bits) are also supported as they are
useful
@item integer modes exist in signed and unsigned versions
@item constants have modes
@end itemize

Currently supported modes are:

@table @code
@item VOID
VOIDmode in GCC.

@item DFLT
Indicate the default mode is wanted, the value of which depends on context.
This is a pseudo-mode and never appears in generated code.

@item BI
Boolean zero/one

@item QI,HI,SI,DI
Same as GCC.

QI is an 8 bit quantity ("quarter int").
HI is a 16 bit quantity ("half int").
SI is a 32 bit quantity ("single int").
DI is a 64 bit quantity ("double int").

In cases where signedness matters, these modes are signed.

@item UQI,UHI,USI,UDI
Unsigned versions of QI,HI,SI,DI.

These modes do not appear in semantic RTL.  Instead, the RTL function
specifies the signedness of its operands where necessary.
To a cpu, a 32 bit register is a 32 bit register.
Ditto for when the 32 bit quantity lives in memory.
It's only in how it is subsequently used or interpreted that
signedness might come into play.
When signedness comes into play on the chip, it's explicitly
specified in the operation, _not_ in the data.
Ergo from this perspective Umodes don't belong in .cpu files.
This is the perspective to use when writing .cpu files.

??? I'm not entirely sure these unsigned modes are needed.
They are useful in removing any ambiguity in how to sign extend constants
which has been a source of problems in GCC.
OTOH, maybe adding uconst akin to const is the way to go?

??? Some existing ports use these modes.

@item WI,UWI
word int, unsigned word int (word_mode in gcc).
These are aliases for the real mode, typically either @code{SI} or @code{DI}.

@item SF,DF,XF,TF
Same as GCC.

SF is a 32 bit IEEE float ("single float").
DF is a 64 bit IEEE float ("double float").
XF is either an 80 or 96 bit IEEE float ("extended float").
(*note: XF values on m68k and i386 are different so may
wish to give them different names).
TF is a 128 bit IEEE float ("??? float").

@item AI
Address integer

@item IAI
Instruction address integer

@item INT,UINT
Varying width int/unsigned-int.  The width is specified by context,
usually in an instruction field definition.

@end table

@node Expressions
@section Expressions
@cindex Expressions

The syntax of CGEN's RTL expressions (or @emph{rtx}) basically follows that of 
GCC's RTL.

The handling of modes is different to simplify the implementation.
Implementation shouldn't necessarily drive design, but it was a useful
simplification.  Still, it needs to be reviewed.  The difference is that
in GCC @code{(function:MODE arg1 ...)} is written in CGEN as
@code{(function MODE arg1 ...)}.  Note the space after @samp{function}.

GCC RTL allows flags to be recorded with RTL (e.g. MEM_VOLATILE_P).
This is supported in CGEN RTL by prefixing each RTL function's arguments
with an optional list of modifiers:
@code{(function (:mod1 :mod2) MODE arg1 ...)}.
The list is a set of modifier names prefixed with ':'.  They can take
arguments.
??? Modifiers are supported by the RTL traversing code, but no use is
made of them yet.

The currently defined semantic functions are:

@table @code
@item (set mode destination source)
Assign @samp{source} to @samp{destination} reference in mode @samp{mode}.

@item (set-quiet mode destination source)
Assign @samp{source} to @samp{destination} referenced in mode
@samp{mode}, but do not print any tracing message.

@item (reg mode hw-name [index])
Return an `operand' of hardware element @samp{hw-name} in mode @samp{mode}.
If @samp{hw-name} is an array, @samp{index} selects which register.

@item (raw-reg mode hw-name [index])
Return an `operand' of hardware element @samp{hw-name} in mode @samp{mode},
bypassing any @code{get} or @code{set} specs of the register.
If @samp{hw-name} is an array, @samp{index} selects which register.
This cannot be used with virtual registers (those specified with the
@samp{VIRTUAL} attribute).

@code{raw-reg} is most often used in @code{get} and @code{set} specs
of a register: if it weren't read and write operations would infinitely
recurse.

@item (mem mode address)
Return an `operand' of memory referenced at @samp{address} in mode
@samp{mode}.

@item (const mode value)
Return an `operand' of constant @samp{value} in mode @samp{mode}.

@item (enum mode value-name)
Return an `operand' of constant @samp{value-name} in mode @samp{mode}.
The value must be from a previously defined enum.

@item (subword mode value word-num)
Return part of @samp{value}.  Which part is determined by @samp{mode} and
@samp{word-num}.  There are three cases.

If @samp{mode} is the same size as the mode of @samp{value}, @samp{word-num}
must be @samp{0} and the result is @samp{value} recast in the new mode.
There is no change in the bits of @samp{value}, they're just interpreted in a
possibly different mode.  This is most often used to interpret an integer
value as a float and vice versa.

If @samp{mode} is smaller, @samp{value} is divided into N pieces and
@samp{word-num} picks which piece.  All pieces have the size of @samp{mode}
except possibly the last.  If the last piece has a different size,
it cannot be referenced.
This follows GCC and is byte order dependent.@footnote{To be
revisited}.
Word number 0 is the most significant word if big-endian-words.
Word number 0 is the least significant word if little-endian-words.

If @samp{mode} is larger, @samp{value} is interpreted in the larger mode
with the upper most significant bits treated as garbage (their value is
assumed to be unimportant to the context in which the value will be used).
@samp{word-num} must be @samp{0}.
This case is byte order independent.

@item (join out-mode in-mode arg1 . arg-rest)
Concatenate @samp{arg1[,arg2[,...]]} to create a value of mode @samp{out-mode}.
@samp{arg1} becomes the most significant part of the result.
Each argument is interpreted in mode @samp{in-mode}.
@samp{in-mode} must evenly divide @samp{out-mode}.
??? Endianness issues have yet to be decided.

@item (sequence mode ((mode1 local1) ...) expr1 expr2 ...)
Execute @samp{expr1}, @samp{expr2}, etc. sequentially. @samp{mode} is the
mode of the result, which is defined to be that of the last expression.
`@code{((mode1 local1) ...)}' is a set of local variables.

@item (parallel mode empty expr1 ...)
Execute @samp{expr1}, @samp{expr2}, etc. in parallel. All inputs are
read before any output is written.  @samp{empty} must be @samp{()} and
is present for consistency with @samp{sequence}. @samp{mode} must be
@samp{VOID} (void mode).

@item (unop mode operand)
Perform a unary arithmetic operation. @samp{unop} is one of @code{neg},
@code{abs}, @code{inv}, @code{not}, @code{zflag}, @code{nflag}.
@code{zflag} returns a bit indicating if @samp{operand} is
zero. @code{nflag} returns a bit indicating if @samp{operand} is
negative. @code{inv} returns the bitwise complement of @samp{operand},
whereas @code{not} returns its logical negation.

@item (binop mode operand1 operand2)
Perform a binary arithmetic operation. @samp{binop} is one of
@code{add}, @code{sub}, @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{xor}, @code{mul},
@code{div}, @code{udiv}, @code{mod}, @code{umod}.

@item (binop-with-bit mode operand1 operand2 operand3)
Same as @samp{binop}, except taking 3 operands. The third operand is
always a single bit. @samp{binop-with-bit} is one of @code{addc},
@code{add-cflag}, @code{add-oflag}, @code{subc}, @code{sub-cflag},
@code{sub-oflag}.

@item (shiftop mode operand1 operand2)
Perform a shift operation. @samp{shiftop} is one of @code{sll},
@code{srl}, @code{sra}, @code{ror}, @code{rol}.

@item (boolifop mode operand1 operand2)
Perform a sequential boolean operation. @samp{operand2} is not processed
if @samp{operand1} ``fails''. @samp{boolifop} is one of @code{andif},
@code{orif}.

@item (convop mode operand)
Perform a mode->mode conversion operation. @samp{convop} is one of
@code{ext}, @code{zext}, @code{trunc}, @code{float}, @code{ufloat},
@code{fix}, @code{ufix}.

@item (cmpop mode operand1 operand2)
Perform a comparison. @samp{cmpop} is one of @code{eq}, @code{ne},
@code{lt}, @code{le}, @code{gt}, @code{ge}, @code{ltu}, @code{leu},
@code{gtu}, @code{geu}.

@item (mathop mode operand)
Perform a mathematical operation. @samp{mathop} is one of @code{sqrt},
@code{cos}, @code{sin}.

@item (if mode condition then [else])
Standard @code{if} statement.

@samp{condition} is any arithmetic expression.
If the value is non-zero the @samp{then} part is executed.
Otherwise, the @samp{else} part is executed (if present).

@samp{mode} is the mode of the result, not of @samp{condition}.
If @samp{mode} is not @code{VOID} (void mode), @samp{else} must be present.
When the result is used, @samp{mode} must specified, and not be @code{VOID}.

@item (cond mode (condition1 expr1a ...) (...) [(else exprNa...)])
From Scheme: keep testing conditions until one succeeds, and then
process the associated expressions.

@item (case mode test ((case1 ..) expr1a ..) (..) [(else exprNa ..)])
From Scheme: Compare @samp{test} with @samp{case1}, @samp{case2},
etc. and process the associated expressions.

@item (c-code mode "C expression")
An escape hook to insert arbitrary C code. @samp{mode} must the
compatible with the result of ``C expression''.

@item (c-call mode symbol operand1 operand2 ...)
An escape hook to emit a subroutine call to function named @samp{symbol}
passing operands @samp{operand1}, @samp{operand2}, etc.  An implicit
first argument of @code{current_cpu} is passed to @samp{symbol}.
@samp{mode} is the mode of the result.  Be aware that @samp{symbol} will
be restricted by reserved words in the C programming language any by
existing symbols in the generated code.

@item (c-raw-call mode symbol operand1 operand2 ...)
Same as @code{c-call}: except there is no implicit @code{current_cpu}
first argument.
@samp{mode} is the mode of the result.

@item (clobber mode object)
Indicate that @samp{object} is written in mode @samp{mode}, without
saying how. This could be useful in conjunction with the C escape hooks.

@item (delay mode num expr)
Indicate that there are @samp{num} delay slots in the processing of
@samp{expr}.  When using this rtx in instruction semantics, CGEN will
infer that the instruction has the DELAY-SLOT attribute.

@item (annul yes?)
@c FIXME: put annul into the glossary.
Annul the following instruction if @samp{yes?} is non-zero. This rtx is
an experiment and will probably change.

@item (skip yes?)
Skip the next instruction if @samp{yes?} is non-zero. This rtx is
an experiment and will probably change.

@item (attr mode kind attr-name)
Return the value of attribute @samp{attr-name} in mode
@samp{mode}. @samp{kind} must currently be @samp{insn}: the current
instruction.

@item (symbol name)
Return a symbol with value @samp{name}, for use in attribute
processing. This is equivalent to @samp{quote} in Scheme but
@samp{quote} sounds too jargonish.

@item (eq-attr mode attr-name value)
Return non-zero if the value of attribute @samp{attr-name} is
@samp{value}. If @samp{value} is a list return ``true'' if
@samp{attr-name} is any of the listed values.

@item (index-of operand)
Return the index of @samp{operand}. For registers this is the register number.

@item (regno operand)
Same as @code{index-of}, but improves readability for registers

@item (error mode message)
Emit an error message from CGEN RTL. Error message is specified by @samp{message}.

@item (nop)
A no-op.

@item (ifield field-name)
Return the value of field @samp{field-name}. @samp{field-name} must be a
field in the instruction. Operands can be any of:
@c ???

@itemize @bullet
@item an operand defined in the description file
@item a register reference, created with (reg mode [index])
@item a memory reference, created with (mem mode address)
@item a constant, created with (const mode value)
@item a `sequence' local variable
@item another expression
@end itemize

The @samp{symbol} in a @code{c-call} or @code{c-raw-call} function is
currently the name of a C function or macro that is invoked by the
generated semantic code.
@end table

@node Macro-expressions
@section Macro-expressions
@cindex Macro-expressions

Macro RTL expressions started out by wanting to not have to always
specify a mode for every expression (and sub-expression
thereof).  Whereas the formal way to specify, say, an add is @code{(add
SI arg1 arg2)} if SI is the default mode of `arg1' then this can be
simply written as @code{(add arg1 arg2)}.  This gets expanded to
@code{(add DFLT arg1 arg2)} where @code{DFLT} means ``default mode''.

It might be possible to replace macro expressions with preprocessor macros,
however for the nonce there is no plan to do this.
