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Proto-Slavic language
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Proto-Slavic is the proto-language from which Old Church Slavonic and other Slavic languages later emerged. It was spoken before the 7th century. No Proto-Slavic writings have been found, so the language has been reconstructed from a comparison of all the attested Slavic languages and of other Indo-European languages.
Contents
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    * 1 Origin
    * 2 Phonology
          o 2.1 Vowels
          o 2.2 Consonants
          o 2.3 Origin of vowels
                + 2.3.1 Other vocalic changes
          o 2.4 Origin of consonants
          o 2.5 Palatalizations
    * 3 Loanwords
    * 4 References
    * 5 See also
    * 6 External links

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Origin

According to some estimations, the Proto-Slavic language developed on the turn of 2nd and 1st millennium BP. There is much debate whether Proto-Slavic branched off directly from Proto-Indo-European, or whether the language branched off later from Proto-Balto-Slavic. Those who deny existence of Proto-Balto-Slavic emphasize fair lexical differences between both groups.

While Slavic and Baltic both underwent Satemization, they preserve much archaic vocabulary. This is especially true for kinship terms and words for parts of human body. See the List of common Indo-European roots for more information.

During long time of its existence (probably 2000 years) the Proto-Slavic language underwent to various changes. This fact, as well as understanding of language processes in various ways by individual linguists, is the reason of different Proto-Slavic reconstructions. Some authors try to distinguish several (e.g. three) periods of the Proto-Slavic development but it is not the generally accepted approach.

In the 5th or 6th century, Slavic tribes began to migrate in the wake of the Germanic migration period. These movements constitute the breakup of Proto-Slavic. The Bulgarians formed their first empire in 681, and in the late 9th century, the Bulgarian dialect spoken in Thessaloniki was recorded for the first time, beginning Old Church Slavonic literature. Old Church Slavonic cannot be viewed as Proto-Slavic itself, having been recorded at least two centuries after the breakup of Proto-Slavic, but it is still reasonably close, and there would probably have been mutual intellegibility between Old Church Slavonic and other Slavic dialects of those days.
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Phonology
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Vowels

There were 11 vowels in Late Proto-Slavic: i, ь, e, ę, ě, a, o, ǫ, ъ, y, u. Explanations:

    * ь, ъ - yers, or ultrashort vowels, probably close to IPA [ɪ], [ɯ] respectively;
    * ę, ǫ - nasal e, o;
    * ě - long vowel pronounced probably like [æ:];
    * y - long vowel pronounced probably like [ɯ:]; according to some scholars, it was the diphtong [ɯi] rather;
    * i, a, u were long vowels;
    * e, o were short vowels;
    * existence of syllabic sonants in Proto-Slavic is not generally accepted, they may have developed only in individual Slavic dialects (as many believe, no syllabic sonants were in East Slavic dialects); many scholars postulate the groups ъl, ьl, ъr, ьr instead of syllabic sonants l̥, ĺ̥, r̥, ŕ̥.

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Consonants
Consonantal system in Late Proto-Slavic consonants 	labial 	dental 	palatalized dental 	alveolar 	palatalized alveolar 	palatal 	velar
stops 	p, b 	t, d 	  	  	  	  	k, g
affricates 	  	  	c, ʒ 	  	č, ǯ 	  	 
fricatives 	v 	s, z 	s’ 	  	š, ž 	  	x
nasals 	m 	n 	  	  	  	  	 
liquids 	  	l 	  	r 	  	j 	 

Remarks:

    * x means a velar fricative, similar to Scottish ch;
    * v must have been labial and similar to English w; the symbol v, however, is widely used;
    * s’ is reconstructed on the basis of West Slavic š = East and South Slavic s;
    * c means the affricate [ʦ], therefore not the same as the IPA [c];
    * ʒ means its voiced counterpart [dz],
    * š, č, ž and ǯ mean IPA [ʃ], [ʧ], [ʒ] and [ʤ] respectively; all these symbols are in common use in Slavistics.

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Origin of vowels

    * i1 < PIE *ī, *ei;
    * i2 < reduced *ai (*ăi or *ui) < PIE *ai, *oi;
    * ь < *i < PIE *i;
    * e < PIE *e;
    * ę < PIE *en, *em;
    * ě1 < PIE ē,
    * ě2 < *ai < PIE *ai, *oi;
    * a < *ā < PIE *ā, *ō;
    * o < *a < PIE *a, *o, *ə;
    * ǫ < *an, *am < PIE *an, *on, *am, *om;
    * ъ < *u < PIE *u;
    * y < PIE *ū;
    * u < *au < PIE *au, *ou.

    * The vowels i2, ě2 developed later than i1, ě1. In Late Proto-Slavic there were no differences in pronunciation between i1 and i2 as well as between ě1 and ě2. They had caused, however, different changes of preceding velars, see below.
    * Late Proto-Slavic yers ь, ъ < earlier i, u developed also from reduced PIE *e, *o respectively. The reduction was probably a morphologic process rather than phonetic.
    * We can observe similar reduction of *ā into *ū (and finally y) in some endings, esp. in closed syllables.
    * The development of the Proto-Slavic i2 was also a morphologic phenomenon as it originated only in some endings.
    * Another source of the Proto-Slavic y is *ō in Germanic loanwords - the borrowings took place when Proto-Slavic had not ō in native words any longer, as PIE *ō had already changed into *ā.
    * PIE *ə disappeared without traces when in a non-initial syllable.
    * PIE *eu probably developed into *jau in Early Proto-Slavic (or: during the Balto-Slavic epoch), and eventually into Proto-Slavic *ju.
    * According to some authors, PIE long diphthongs *ēi, *āi, *ōi, *ēu, *āu, *ōu had twofold development in Early Proto-Slavic, namely they shortened in endings into simple *ei, *ai, *oi, *eu, *au, *ou but they lost their second element elsewhere and changed into *ē, *ā, *ō with further development like above.

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Other vocalic changes

    * *jo, *jъ, *jy changed into *je, *jь, *ji;
    * *o, *ъ, *y also changed into *e, *ь, *i after *c, *ʒ, *s’ which developed as the result of the 3rd palatalization;
    * *e, *ě changed into *o, *a after *č, *ǯ, *š, *ž in some contexts / words;
    * a similar change of *ě into *a after *j seems to have occurred in Proto-Slavic but next it can have been modified by analogy.

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Origin of consonants

    * p < PIE *p;
    * b < PIE *b, *bh;
    * t < PIE *t;
    * d < PIE *d, *dh;
    * k < PIE *k, *kw;
    * g < PIE *g, *gh, *gw, *gwh;
    * s < PIE *s, *k’;
    * z < PIE *g’, *g’h, *s [z] before a voiced consonant;
    * x < PIE *s before a vowel when after *r, *u, *k, *i, probably also after *l; see Ruki;
    * m < PIE *m;
    * n < PIE *n;
    * l < PIE *l;
    * r < PIE *r;
    * v < PIE *w;
    * j < PIE *j.

In some words the Proto-Slavic x developed from other PIE phonemes, like *kH, *ks, *sk.

Moreover:

    * c < k in the 2nd palatalization;
    * ʒ < g in the 2nd palatalization;
    * s’ < x in the 2nd palatalization;
    * č < kj and k in the 1st palatalization;
    * šč < stj, skj and sk in the 1st palatalization;
    * žǯ < zdj, zgj and zg in the 1st palatalization;
    * š < sj, xj and x in the 1st palatalization;
    * ž < zj, gj and g in the 1st palatalization;
    * initial j originated before the front vowels e, ě, ę (and before ь, i in some dialects).

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Palatalizations

    * The 1st palatalization

    *k, *g, *x > *č, *ǯ, *š before *i1, *ě1, *e, *ę, *ь;
    next ǯ changed into ž everywhere except after z;
    *kt, *gt > *tj before *i1, *ě1, *e, *ę, *ь (there are only examples for *kti).

    * The 2nd palatalization

    *k, *g, *x > *c, *ʒ, *s’ before *i2, *ě2;
    *s’ mixed with s or š in individual Slavic dialects;
    *ʒ simplified into z, except Polish;
    also *kv, *gv, *xv > *cv, *ʒv, *s’v before *i2, *ě2 in some dialects (not in West Slavic and probably not in East Slavic - Russian examples may be of South Slavic origin);
    as it seems, the 2nd palatalization did not occur in old northern Russian dialects.

    * The 3rd palatalization

    *k, *g, *x > *c, *ʒ, *s’ after front vowels (*i, *ь, *ě, *e, *ę) and *ьr (= *ŕ̥), before a vowel;
    it was progressive contrary to the 1st and the 2nd palatalization;
    it occurred inconsistently, only in certain words, and sometimes it was limited to some Proto-Slavic dialects;
    sometimes a palatalized form and a non-palatalized one existed side-by-side even within the same dialect (ex. Old Church Slavonic sikъ || sicь 'such');
    in fact, no examples are known for the 3rd palatalization after *ě, *e, and (few) examples after *ŕ̥ are limited to Old Church Slavonic.

    * Consonants + j

    *sj, *zj > *š, *ž;
    *stj, *zdj > *šč, *žǯ;
    *kj, *gj, *xj > *č, *ǯ, *š (next *ǯ > *ž);
    *skj, *zgj > *šč, *žǯ;
    *tj, *dj had been preserved and developed variously in individual Slavic dialects;
    *rj, *lj, *nj had been preserved until the end of the Proto-Slavic epoch, next developed into palatalized *ŕ, *ĺ, *ń;
    *pj, *bj, *vj, *mj had been preserved until the end of the Proto-Slavic epoch, next developed into *pĺ, *bĺ, *vĺ, *mĺ in most Slavic dialects (the range of the change is under discussion).

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Loanwords

The lexical stock of Proto-Slavic also includes a number of loanwords from the languages of various tribes and peoples that the Proto-Slavs came into contact with. However, the list of the borrowings, their sources and other details are under discussion. According to most sources, the earliest traceable lexical or semantic borrowings were loans from the Northeastern Iranian languages spoken by the Scythian, Alanian, and Sarmatian tribes. Most of these borrowings appertain to the religious sphere: *bogъ 'God' (cf. also derivatives like *bogatъ 'rich', *ubogъ 'poor'), *gatati 'to divine', *divъ 'demon', *rajь 'paradise', *svętъ 'saint, holy', *zъlъ 'evil', *mogyla 'kurgan, tomb, grave' and so on. Yet non-religious terms such as *(j)aščerъ 'serpent', *toporъ 'axe', *nebo 'sky, heaven', *slovo 'word', *soxa 'primitive plough', *čaša 'goblet, bowl, cup; cranium' and (at least according to some scholars) *xata 'hut, house' are also of Iranian origin.

It is generally acknowledged that of the various languages which left their mark on the early lexical stock, Germanic occupies a pivotal position, and many early Germanic loanwords into Proto-Slavic are known. Examples: *xlěbъ 'bread', *xlěvъ 'pigsty', *mečъ 'sword', *šelmъ 'helmet', *xъlmъ 'hill', *plugъ 'plough', *skotъ 'cattle', *bjudo 'bowl, basin; table', possibly also *melko 'milk', *smoky 'fig'. Younger Germanic (mainly Old High German) borrowings are *pěnęʒь 'penny, money', *kъnęʒь 'king, prince, priest' (< kuning), *istъba 'room, apartment' (< stuba), *bukъ 'beech-tree', *tjudjь 'foreign, stranger, somebody else's' (< *þiudisk, cf. diutisk, modern Deutsch 'German'). The original source of some of them may have been other languages from where they came into Slavic with Germanic mediation:

    * Latin: *kupiti 'to buy' (cf. Latin caupō 'merchant' from Etruscan), *dъska 'board' (< Lat. discus through Old High German tisk), *popъ 'priest', *kotьlъ 'kettle', *cěsarjь 'king, imperator', *krьstъ 'cross' (< Lat. Chrīstus through Old High German Krist);
    * Greek (with Gothic mediation): *cьrky 'church', *velьbǫdъ 'camel' (< Greek elephas 'elephant' through Gothic ulbandus);
    * Celtic *lěkъ 'medicine', *tynъ 'fence' (cf. English town from the same source).

Some Latin (including words from Balkan Romance) and Greek words entered Late Proto-Slavic even without Germanic mediation:

    * Latin: *konopja (<Popular Latin *canapis), *palata/*polata 'tent' (< Lat. palātium), *poganъ 'pagan' (< pagānus), *kоlęda 'carol' (< Lat. calendae), *osьlъ 'ass, donkey';
    * Greek: *korabjь 'ship' (Byzantine Greek karábion), *krabъ 'crab', *makъ 'poppy', *olkъtь 'elbow', *ogurъkъ/*ogurьcь 'cucumber'.

There is a number of Proto-Slavic words which are suspected to be of yet other origin:

    * Ugro-Finnic: *polъ 'half; sex', *(j)ama 'cave, den', *sani 'sledge, sleigh',
    * Turkic: *kobyla 'mare', *xomǫto 'horse's yoke', *gatь 'dam', *xyzъ/*xyzja 'hut' (most scholars consider this word Germanic), *kъnęga/*kъniga 'book', *proso 'millet',
    * Celtic: *sluga 'servant', *braga 'kind of beer', *gunja 'kind of a coat', *černъ 'molar'.

Some words may also have originated from Dacian/North Thracian languages [1], or from the Baltic languages.
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References

    * Moszyński, Leszek. Wstęp do filologii słowiańskiej. PWN. Warszawa, 1984.
    * Paliga, Sorin. Phd linguistics. Lexicon Etymologum Elementorum Thraecorum. [1]
    * Schenker, Alexander M. The Dawn of Slavic. Yale Language Series, 1995.
    * Vasmer, Max. Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg, 1950-1958.

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See also

    * Balto-Slavic languages
    * Old Church Slavonic

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External links

    * The Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IED)
    * Türkic, Slavic and Iranian

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language"

Categories: Slavic languages | Proto-languages